Puritan Literature: Characteristics, Themes, Authors and More

Puritan literature refers to the body of literary works produced by the Puritans, a religious group that emerged in England in the late 16th century and migrated to America in the early 17th century. Their writings reflect their religious beliefs, values, and way of life. This body of work is characterized by its focus on Christian theology, personal piety, and the human relationship with God. Puritan authors often explored themes of sin, redemption, and divine providence in their writings, which included sermons, poetry, historical narratives, and spiritual autobiographies.

Historical Context and Foundations of Puritan Literature

The origins of Puritanism can be traced back to the tumultuous religious landscape of 16th-century England. As the Protestant Reformation swept across Europe, a group within the Church of England sought to purify it further from what they perceived as lingering Catholic influences. This movement, which became known as Puritanism, gained momentum during the reign of Elizabeth I (1558-1603). The Puritans advocated for a simpler form of worship, a greater emphasis on personal piety, and a strict adherence to Biblical teachings. However, their reformist zeal often put them at odds with the English monarchy and the established church.

The political and religious tensions in England reached a boiling point in the early 17th century, leading many Puritans to seek refuge in the New World. The voyage of the Mayflower in 1620 and the subsequent establishment of Plymouth Colony marked the beginning of a significant Puritan presence in North America. This migration reached its peak with the “Great Migration” of the 1630s, led by John Winthrop, which saw thousands of Puritans settle in the Massachusetts Bay Colony. These settlers aimed to create a “city upon a hill” – a model Christian community that would serve as an example to the world.

In their new home, the Puritans established a society deeply rooted in their religious beliefs. Education was highly valued, as evidenced by the founding of Harvard College in 1636, primarily to train ministers. The establishment of the first printing press in British America in 1638 further facilitated the spread of Puritan ideas and literature. These developments created a fertile ground for a unique literary tradition to flourish.

The intellectual foundations of Puritan literature were diverse and complex. At its core was Calvinism, the theological system developed by John Calvin, which emphasized concepts such as predestination, total depravity, and the sovereignty of God. This theology profoundly shaped the Puritan worldview and, consequently, their literature. Covenant theology, which posited a special relationship between God and His chosen people, was another crucial concept that found expression in Puritan writings, both at the individual and communal levels.

Puritan literature also drew heavily on Biblical typology, a method of interpretation that saw events and figures in the Old Testament as foreshadowings of New Testament realities. This approach allowed Puritan writers to draw parallels between their own experiences and Biblical narratives, imbuing their works with a sense of divine purpose. Despite their often antagonistic relationship with humanist ideals, Puritans were also influenced by Renaissance humanism, particularly its emphasis on education and classical learning.

The literary influences on Puritan writing were equally diverse. The Bible, of course, was the primary source, often quoted extensively and used as a model for both style and content. Many Puritans were well-versed in Greek and Latin classics, which influenced their rhetoric and writing style. Medieval religious literature, particularly allegories and morality plays, also left its mark on Puritan literature, as evidenced in works like John Bunyan’s “Pilgrim’s Progress.” The writings of Protestant reformers such as Luther and Calvin shaped not only Puritan theology but also their literary output.

As Puritan communities developed in the New World, a distinct literary tradition emerged to serve their specific needs. Instructional literature, including sermons, theological treatises, and conduct books, aimed to educate and guide the faithful. Historical works, such as William Bradford’s “Of Plymouth Plantation,” documented the Puritan experience, often interpreting events through a providential lens. Personal writings, including diaries, spiritual autobiographies, and conversion narratives, explored individual faith journeys and served as tools for self-examination and spiritual growth.

Poetry, initially viewed with skepticism due to its association with frivolity, gradually found a place in Puritan literature. Poets like Anne Bradstreet and Edward Taylor developed a tradition of devotional and meditative verse that explored religious themes while showcasing considerable literary skill. Even as Puritan influence began to wane in the late 17th and early 18th centuries, this poetic tradition continued to evolve and influence American literature.

The decline of direct Puritan influence was brought about by changing social and economic conditions in the colonies, the religious revival known as the Great Awakening in the 1730s-1740s, and the emergence of Enlightenment thought. However, the impact of Puritanism on American literature and culture persisted long after its decline as a dominant social force. The Puritan emphasis on individual spiritual experience, their use of plain style in writing, and their tendency to see divine providence in worldly events continued to shape American literary expression for generations.

Core Beliefs Reflected in Literature

Core beliefs – predestination, the value of hard work, and the constant struggle against sin – permeated Puritan literature, shaping its themes, style, and purpose. The literature served not only as a means of expression but also as a tool for reinforcing these beliefs and guiding the community in their spiritual lives.

Predestination and Salvation:

The concept of predestination was a central tenet of Puritan theology, profoundly influencing their worldview and literature. Predestination, as understood by Puritans, held that God had predetermined who would be saved (the elect) and who would be damned, even before creation.

This belief had a significant impact on Puritan literature:

1. Spiritual autobiographies: Many Puritans wrote detailed accounts of their spiritual journeys, searching for signs of their election. John Bunyan’s “Grace Abounding to the Chief of Sinners” (1666) is a prime example, detailing his struggles with sin and eventual spiritual awakening.
2. Sermons: Puritan ministers often preached on the topic of salvation, urging their congregations to look for signs of God’s grace in their lives. Cotton Mather’s sermons frequently touched on this theme.
3. Poetry: Poets like Anne Bradstreet explored the concept of divine providence and the search for assurance of salvation. Her poem “To My Dear and Loving Husband” subtly alludes to the idea of eternal union in heaven, reflecting the Puritan hope of salvation.

Importance of Hard Work and Frugality:

The Puritan work ethic was intrinsically linked to their faith. They believed that diligence in one’s calling was a way to glorify God and potentially a sign of one’s elect status. This belief heavily influenced their literature:

1. Histories: Works like William Bradford’s “Of Plymouth Plantation” emphasized the hardships faced by the Puritans and how their faith and hard work helped them overcome these challenges.
2. Conduct books: Publications like Cotton Mather’s “Essays to Do Good” (1710) provided practical advice on living a godly life, emphasizing the importance of industry and frugality.
3. Personal narratives: Many Puritan diaries and journals, such as Samuel Sewall’s, detailed daily life and work, reflecting the value placed on productive use of time.
4. Allegorical literature: John Bunyan’s “The Pilgrim’s Progress” portrays characters like “Sloth” and “Diligence,” reinforcing Puritan values.

Struggle with Sin and the Devil:

Puritans viewed the world as a battleground between good and evil, with individuals constantly at risk of falling into sin or being tempted by the devil. This perspective is prominently featured in their literature:

1. Sermons: Jonathan Edwards’ famous sermon “Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God” (1741) vividly depicts the horrors of hell and the consequences of sin, urging listeners to repent and seek salvation.
2. Captivity narratives: Works like Mary Rowlandson’s “A Narrative of the Captivity and Restoration of Mrs. Mary Rowlandson” (1682) often interpreted hardships as tests of faith or punishment for sin, with deliverance seen as a sign of God’s mercy.
3. Poetry: Michael Wigglesworth’s “The Day of Doom” (1662) is a long poem describing Judgment Day, emphasizing the consequences of sin and the importance of living a godly life.
4. Witchcraft literature: The Salem witch trials spawned numerous texts dealing with the perceived threat of the devil in society, such as Cotton Mather’s “Wonders of the Invisible World” (1693).
5. Conversion narratives: Many Puritans wrote about their personal struggles with sin and their journey towards faith, such as Thomas Shepard’s autobiography.

Puritanism Literature: Literary Characteristics

Puritan literature is distinguished by several key characteristics that reflect the movement’s religious beliefs, cultural values, and historical context. One of the most prominent features is the use of plain style writing. This approach favored clear, direct language over ornate or elaborate prose. The Puritans believed that the truth of God’s word and their own experiences should be communicated as plainly as possible, without the distraction of flowery language or complex literary devices. This plain style is evident in works like William Bradford’s “Of Plymouth Plantation” and many Puritan sermons, where the focus is on conveying meaning clearly rather than showcasing literary artistry.

Despite this emphasis on plainness, Puritan literature is rich with Biblical allusions and imagery. The Bible was the centerpiece of Puritan life and thought, and this is reflected strongly in their writing. Authors frequently drew parallels between their own experiences and Biblical events, used Biblical quotations to support their arguments, and employed Biblical imagery to illustrate their points. This extensive use of Biblical references assumed a high level of Biblical literacy among readers and listeners, reflecting the importance of Scripture in Puritan society.

Another defining characteristic of Puritan literature is its strong didactic purpose. Most Puritan writing was intended to instruct, guide, or edify the reader in matters of faith and conduct. Sermons, perhaps the most common form of Puritan literature, were explicitly designed to teach and exhort. Even works that were not overtly instructional, such as poetry or personal narratives, often contained moral lessons or spiritual insights. Anne Bradstreet’s poems, for instance, while personal and sometimes domestic in nature, frequently incorporate spiritual reflections and moral teachings.

The theme of divine providence runs strongly through Puritan literature. Puritans believed that God was actively involved in human affairs, and they saw signs of His will in both everyday occurrences and major events. This worldview is evident in historical works like Cotton Mather’s “Magnalia Christi Americana,” which interprets the history of New England as a series of providential occurrences. It’s also apparent in personal narratives and diaries, where authors often attributed their fortunes and misfortunes to divine intervention.

Introspection and self-examination are also key features of Puritan writing. The Puritan emphasis on personal salvation and the need to scrutinize one’s own soul for signs of grace led to a tradition of intense self-analysis in literature. This is particularly evident in spiritual autobiographies and conversion narratives, where authors meticulously documented their spiritual struggles and experiences. Thomas Shepard’s autobiography and Jonathan Edwards’ “Personal Narrative” are excellent examples of this introspective approach.

Puritan literature often grapples with complex theological concepts, particularly the ideas of predestination and free will. While these topics could be challenging, Puritan writers strove to make them accessible to their audience. They frequently used analogies, examples from everyday life, and careful reasoning to explore these deep theological waters. Jonathan Edwards’ sermons and treatises are particularly noted for their philosophical depth and logical rigor.

The concept of typology, where events and figures from the Old Testament are seen as prefiguring New Testament realities, is another important characteristic of Puritan literature. This interpretive approach allowed Puritan writers to draw parallels between Biblical history and their own experiences, imbuing their personal and communal stories with divine significance. For instance, they often likened their journey to the New World to the Israelites’ exodus from Egypt.

While Puritan literature is often associated with prose forms like sermons and histories, it also includes a significant body of poetry. Puritan poetry, exemplified by writers like Anne Bradstreet and Edward Taylor, tends to focus on religious themes, personal faith, and the contemplation of God’s works in nature. These poems often employ metaphysical conceits, complex metaphors that draw unexpected parallels between spiritual concepts and physical objects.

Finally, it’s worth noting the gendered nature of much Puritan writing. While most published Puritan authors were men, there are notable exceptions like Anne Bradstreet, whose work provides valuable insights into the female Puritan experience. Additionally, many Puritan women kept diaries and wrote letters that, while not necessarily intended for publication, form an important part of the Puritan literary corpus.

How did the Puritans View Literature?

The Puritans had a complex and somewhat paradoxical view of literature:

• Utilitarian purpose: The Puritans believed that all activities, including writing and reading, should serve a higher purpose. Literature was not meant for idle entertainment or aesthetic pleasure alone. Instead, it was viewed as a tool for moral and spiritual edification. This utilitarian approach led to a focus on works that could instruct, inspire, or improve the reader’s character and faith.
• Religious focus: For Puritans, literature was primarily a means to explore and express religious truths. They favored works that directly engaged with biblical themes, explored theological concepts, or recounted spiritual experiences. This focus resulted in a rich body of religious poetry, sermons, and spiritual autobiographies. Writers like Anne Bradstreet and Edward Taylor, for instance, composed deeply religious poetry that reflected on God, faith, and the human condition.
• Suspicion of fiction: Many Puritans were skeptical of fictional works, particularly novels and plays. They feared that these forms of literature could lead readers astray from religious truths or encourage immoral thoughts and behaviors. This suspicion was rooted in the belief that imagination, if not properly directed, could be a gateway to sin. However, this view wasn’t universal among all Puritans and evolved over time. Some allegorical works of fiction, like John Bunyan’s “The Pilgrim’s Progress,” were widely read and appreciated for their clear religious messages.
• Emphasis on plainness: The Puritan preference for plain, direct writing was an extension of their religious beliefs. They valued clarity and accessibility in language, believing that religious truths should be communicated as clearly as possible. This led to a distinct literary style characterized by straightforward syntax, simple vocabulary, and a lack of ornate rhetorical devices. This plain style was particularly evident in Puritan sermons and religious tracts, which aimed to convey complex theological ideas in a manner understandable to the average congregant.
• Personal expression: Despite their general austerity, Puritans placed great value on personal spiritual experiences and their expression through writing. This led to a rich tradition of spiritual autobiographies, conversion narratives, and personal diaries. These works, such as Mary Rowlandson’s captivity narrative, allowed individuals to reflect on their spiritual journeys and share their experiences with others. This emphasis on personal expression contributed significantly to the development of the American literary voice.
• Limited secular reading: While Puritans were cautious about secular literature, their attitude wasn’t one of outright rejection. Classical works, particularly those with moral lessons, were often part of educational curricula. Historical writings were also generally accepted, as they were seen as factual accounts rather than potentially misleading fiction. Poetry, especially if it dealt with religious themes or nature (seen as God’s creation), was more readily accepted than other forms of creative writing.
• Educational tool: Literature played a crucial role in Puritan education. Reading and writing were considered essential skills, primarily because they enabled individuals to study and interpret the Bible independently. This emphasis on literacy contributed to relatively high rates of education in Puritan communities. Beyond religious texts, literature was used to teach moral lessons, history, and classical languages.
• Cautious creativity: While Puritans were generally wary of unbridled imagination, they didn’t completely stifle creativity. Instead, they channeled it into acceptable forms, such as religious poetry, allegorical works, and spiritual meditations. Poets like Anne Bradstreet and Edward Taylor demonstrated that it was possible to create deeply moving and artistically sophisticated works within the constraints of Puritan values. Their poetry often used elaborate metaphors and vivid imagery to explore religious themes, showing that creativity could coexist with and even enhance spiritual expression.

Themes in Puritan Literature

Individual relationship with God:

This theme is central to Puritan literature, reflecting their emphasis on personal faith and direct communion with the divine. Puritan writers often explored the complexities of an individual’s spiritual journey, including moments of intense closeness to God as well as periods of doubt and spiritual dryness.

The concept of personal salvation was particularly important. Puritans believed in the need for a direct, transformative experience of God’s grace, often referred to as conversion. Many Puritan texts, especially spiritual autobiographies, detail the author’s path to salvation, including their struggles with sin, moments of revelation, and the ongoing process of sanctification.

Faith and doubt are frequently intertwined in these narratives. Puritan authors often depicted faith not as a static state but as a dynamic relationship, filled with moments of certainty and uncertainty. Works like John Bunyan’s “Grace Abounding to the Chief of Sinners” vividly illustrate this internal struggle, showing how doubts and fears could actually be part of the journey towards a stronger faith.

Sin and redemption:

The Puritan worldview was deeply influenced by the doctrine of total depravity – the belief that all humans are corrupted by sin as a result of the Fall. This theme manifests in literature through intense self-scrutiny and confession of sins, as well as a persistent awareness of human weakness.

Many Puritan texts depict life as a constant struggle against sin. This isn’t just about avoiding major transgressions, but also about purifying one’s thoughts and motivations. Jonathan Edwards’ sermon “Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God” is a powerful example, vividly illustrating the Puritan view of sin’s consequences and the urgent need for repentance.

However, the theme of sin is always balanced with the possibility of redemption through Christ. Puritan literature often emphasizes God’s mercy and the transformative power of grace. Many narratives describe moments of profound spiritual renewal, where the author experiences God’s forgiveness and is inspired to live a more godly life.

Predestination and free will:

This complex theological concept is a recurring theme in Puritan literature. According to Calvinist doctrine, which heavily influenced Puritanism, God had predetermined who would be saved (the elect) and who would be damned. This belief created a tension in Puritan thought and writing.

On one hand, Puritan authors often searched for signs of their election, scrutinizing their experiences and feelings for evidence of God’s saving grace. This led to detailed introspection in many Puritan texts, as writers hoped to discern their spiritual status.

On the other hand, Puritans still emphasized human responsibility and the importance of striving to live a godly life. This created a complex interplay between divine sovereignty and human agency in their writing. Authors like Michael Wigglesworth in “The Day of Doom” grappled with these ideas, exploring how predestination coexisted with moral accountability.

Divine providence:

The theme of divine providence permeates Puritan literature, reflecting their belief that God actively intervenes in human affairs. This worldview led Puritan writers to interpret both personal experiences and historical events as manifestations of God’s will.

In personal narratives and diaries, authors often attributed their fortunes and misfortunes to providential intervention. For instance, Mary Rowlandson’s captivity narrative interprets her experiences through this lens, seeing both her trials and her eventual release as part of God’s plan.

On a broader scale, historical works like Cotton Mather’s “Magnalia Christi Americana” present the history of New England as a series of providential occurrences. Successes are seen as signs of God’s favor, while hardships are interpreted as divine tests or punishments meant to strengthen the community’s faith.

This theme also appears in Puritan poetry, where natural phenomena and everyday occurrences are often depicted as signs of God’s power and involvement in the world. Edward Taylor’s poems, for example, frequently use observations of nature as starting points for meditations on divine providence.

Covenant theology:

Covenant theology was a fundamental concept in Puritan thought and literature. It encompassed both individual and communal dimensions, shaping how Puritans understood their relationship with God and their role in society.

On an individual level, Puritans believed in a personal covenant with God, established through faith and maintained through righteous living. This theme appears frequently in spiritual autobiographies and diaries, where authors reflect on their covenant obligations and strive to discern God’s faithfulness in their lives.

The communal aspect of covenant theology is perhaps even more prominent in Puritan literature. Many Puritans saw their community, especially in New England, as having a special covenant with God, similar to that of ancient Israel. This idea is powerfully expressed in John Winthrop’s sermon “A Model of Christian Charity,” where he describes the Puritan settlement as a “city upon a hill,” with a divine mandate to create an exemplary Christian society.

Puritan historical works often interpret community events through this covenantal lens, seeing successes as signs of God’s favor and hardships as calls to renew their commitment to the covenant.

Nature and the natural world

The natural world plays a significant role in Puritan literature, often serving as a source of spiritual insight and a canvas for exploring divine attributes. Puritans viewed nature as God’s creation, imbued with spiritual significance and lessons for the observant believer.

In Puritan poetry, natural phenomena frequently become metaphors for spiritual realities. Edward Taylor’s “Meditations” series is a prime example, using observations of nature as starting points for contemplations on divine truths and personal faith.

Puritan writers also interpreted natural events, especially unusual or extreme ones, as signs of God’s judgment or blessing. Earthquakes, comets, and storms might be seen as divine warnings, while bountiful harvests could be interpreted as signs of God’s favor.

The harsh New England environment features prominently in many narratives, often interpreted through a providential lens. Writers like William Bradford in “Of Plymouth Plantation” describe the challenges posed by the natural world while also seeing God’s hand in their ability to survive and thrive in this new land.

Spiritual warfare

The theme of spiritual warfare is pervasive in Puritan literature, reflecting their belief in an ongoing battle between good and evil, both in the world and within the human heart.

This theme is most vividly realized in allegorical works like John Bunyan’s “The Pilgrim’s Progress,” where the protagonist’s journey to the Celestial City is fraught with spiritual dangers and temptations. Each challenge represents a different aspect of the believer’s struggle against sin and worldly influences.

In sermons and theological treatises, Puritan writers often employed military metaphors to describe the Christian life, urging believers to “put on the whole armor of God” and remain vigilant against spiritual attacks. Cotton Mather’s writings, for instance, frequently depict the Christian life as a constant battle against sin and the devil.

The theme of spiritual warfare also appears in personal narratives and diaries, where authors describe their internal struggles against temptation and doubt as battles for their souls.

Church and worship

The nature and role of the church is a significant theme in Puritan literature, reflecting their desire to create a pure, reformed church free from what they saw as Catholic corruptions.

Many Puritan works discuss church governance, advocating for a congregational model rather than a hierarchical one. They also emphasized the importance of a learned, godly ministry. Cotton Mather’s “Magnalia Christi Americana” includes extensive discussions of proper church organization and the qualities of effective ministers.

The theme of sincere worship is also prominent. Puritans criticized what they saw as empty rituals and instead emphasized heartfelt, Bible-based worship. This is reflected in their writings on prayer, preaching, and sacraments, where the focus is always on sincere engagement with God rather than outward form.

Debates about church membership and the signs of true conversion also feature in many Puritan texts, reflecting their concern with maintaining a pure church community.

Family and domestic life

While Puritans are sometimes stereotyped as being austere or anti-family, their literature actually places great emphasis on family and domestic life, viewing these as crucial spheres for spiritual growth and social order.

Puritan writers often depicted marriage as a spiritual partnership, with husband and wife supporting each other in their faith. Anne Bradstreet’s poetry, for instance, beautifully expresses both romantic love and spiritual companionship in marriage.

Child-rearing was seen as a sacred duty, with parents responsible for the spiritual education of their children. Many Puritan texts offer advice on godly parenting, emphasizing both loving nurture and firm discipline.

The household itself was viewed as a microcosm of godly society, with the father as both spiritual leader and authority figure. This hierarchical view of family life is reflected in many Puritan writings on domestic matters.

Interestingly, while Puritan society was patriarchal, their emphasis on literacy and Bible study for all meant that women’s voices are also present in Puritan literature, offering valuable insights into female experiences of faith and family life.

Education and intellectual pursuit

Puritans placed a high value on education and intellectual development, seeing these as essential tools for understanding Scripture and fulfilling one’s divine calling. This theme is prominent in many aspects of Puritan literature.

The importance of literacy is emphasized in numerous Puritan writings. They believed that every individual should be able to read the Bible for themselves, leading to a strong push for universal education in Puritan communities. This is reflected in works like “The New England Primer,” which combined basic literacy instruction with religious education.

Scholarly pursuits were highly respected in Puritan society. Many Puritan authors were also educators, and their works often reflect a deep engagement with theology, philosophy, and classical learning. Cotton Mather’s voluminous writings, covering topics from history to natural philosophy, exemplify this intellectual breadth.

However, Puritans also warned against the dangers of knowledge pursued for its own sake, emphasizing that all learning should ultimately serve spiritual ends. This tension between intellectual curiosity and spiritual priority is a recurring theme in Puritan educational writings.

Self-examination and introspection

Intense self-examination is a hallmark of Puritan literature, reflecting their belief in the importance of constant spiritual vigilance and growth.

Spiritual autobiographies and diaries often contain meticulous self-analysis, with authors scrutinizing their thoughts, feelings, and actions for signs of sin or grace. Thomas Shepard’s autobiography is a prime example, detailing his spiritual struggles with unflinching honesty.

This theme of introspection is closely tied to the Puritan practice of conversion narratives, where individuals would recount their journey to faith. These narratives typically involve deep soul-searching and critical self-reflection.

Even in more public forms of writing, like sermons, Puritan authors often model self-examination for their audience, encouraging readers or listeners to engage in similar introspection.

Typology

Typology, a method of biblical interpretation that sees events and figures in the Old Testament as prefiguring those in the New Testament, is a significant theme in Puritan literature.

Puritan writers frequently applied this interpretive approach to their own experiences and to historical events. For instance, they often likened their journey to New England to the Israelites’ exodus from Egypt, seeing themselves as a chosen people establishing a new promised land.

This typological thinking allowed Puritans to imbue their personal and communal experiences with divine significance. It’s particularly evident in historical works and sermons, where current events are often interpreted through biblical parallels.

Work ethic and calling

The Puritan work ethic is a prominent theme in their literature, reflecting their belief that diligent labor in one’s calling was a form of worship and a sign of election.

Puritan writings often emphasize the spiritual value of work, seeing it not just as a means of survival but as a way to glorify God and serve the community. This theme appears in sermons, conduct books, and personal writings.

The concept of a divine calling or vocation is closely related. Puritans believed that each person had a specific role to fulfill in God’s plan, and much of their literature encourages readers to discern and pursue their calling with diligence.

Frugality and industriousness are frequently praised in Puritan texts, while idleness is condemned as a form of sin. These values are reflected in both religious writings and in more practical works on business and household management.

Death and afterlife

Given their strong focus on salvation, it’s not surprising that death and the afterlife are major themes in Puritan literature.

Puritan writings often emphasize the importance of preparing for death, seeing life as a brief opportunity to secure one’s eternal destiny. Funeral sermons, a popular genre, typically use the occasion of death to exhort the living to examine their own spiritual state.

Contemplation of eternity is a recurring theme, with authors vividly describing both the joys of heaven and the horrors of hell. Jonathan Edwards’ sermon “Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God” is a famous example, using powerful imagery to depict the perils of damnation.

However, for those counted among the elect, death is often portrayed as a joyful transition to eternal life. Many Puritan texts, especially poetry and personal narratives, express a longing for heaven and the hope of reunion with deceased loved ones.

Social and moral reform

Puritans were deeply concerned with creating a godly society, and this reformist impulse is evident in much of their literature.

Many Puritan writings critique social vices and call for moral reform. Increase Mather’s “A Call from Heaven to the Present and Succeeding Generations,” for example, warns against various societal sins and calls for repentance.

The theme of moral discipline is prominent, with many texts emphasizing the need for both personal and communal righteousness. This often extends to discussions of civil government, which Puritans saw as having a responsibility to uphold God’s laws.

Puritan literature also often addresses specific social issues of their time, such as the treatment of Native Americans, the practice of slavery, or economic inequalities. While their views on these issues were complex and often problematic by modern standards, they reflect a consistent concern with aligning society with their understanding of God’s will.

Major Works and Authors in Puritan Literature

John Winthrop

John Winthrop was a key figure in early Puritan literature and one of the most influential leaders of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. His writings provide crucial insights into Puritan thought and the early colonial experience in New England. Here’s an overview of Winthrop and his major works:

Biography: John Winthrop (1588-1649) was born in England to a wealthy family. He was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, and became a lawyer. Winthrop was a devout Puritan who believed that the Church of England needed further reform. In 1630, he led a group of Puritans to the New World as part of the “Great Migration” and became the first governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony.

Major Works:

1. “A Model of Christian Charity” (1630): This is perhaps Winthrop’s most famous work, also known as the “City upon a Hill” sermon. Winthrop delivered this sermon aboard the ship Arbella as the Puritans approached New England. Key aspects of this work include:

• Vision for the new colony as a model Christian community
• Emphasis on love and unity among the settlers
• Concept of a covenant relationship with God
• The oft-quoted phrase “we shall be as a city upon a hill”

This sermon laid out the ideological foundation for the Puritan experiment in the New World and has been influential in American political rhetoric ever since.

2. “The Journal of John Winthrop” (1630-1649): This extensive journal, which Winthrop kept from the voyage to New England until near his death, is a crucial primary source for understanding early colonial life. It includes:

• Detailed accounts of daily life in the colony
• Records of political decisions and conflicts
• Descriptions of interactions with Native Americans
• Winthrop’s personal reflections on religious and social issues

The journal provides invaluable insights into the challenges faced by the colonists and the development of Puritan society in New England.

3. “A Short Story of the Rise, Reign, and Ruin of the Antinomians, Familists, and Libertines” (1644): This work documents the Antinomian Controversy, a significant theological dispute in early Massachusetts. It focuses on:

• The trial of Anne Hutchinson
• Debates over the covenant of grace versus the covenant of works
• Winthrop’s perspective on maintaining religious and social order

While controversial for its bias against Hutchinson and her followers, this work is an important source for understanding the theological debates and power dynamics in early Puritan New England.

4. “Arbitrary Government Described and the Government of the Massachusetts Vindicated from that Aspersion” (1644): In this essay, Winthrop defends the Massachusetts government against charges of arbitrary rule. It includes:

• Arguments for the legitimacy of the colonial government
• Discussion of the balance between liberty and authority
• Winthrop’s views on the proper role of government in a Christian society

This work provides insights into Puritan political thought and the early development of American ideas about governance.

Winthrop’s writings are characterized by their clear prose style, deep religious conviction, and concern with creating a godly society. They reflect key Puritan themes such as covenant theology, divine providence, and the importance of moral discipline. While Winthrop’s views on religious and political matters were often strict by modern standards, his works remain crucial for understanding the Puritan mindset and the foundations of early American society.

William Bradford

William Bradford was another pivotal figure in early Puritan literature and one of the founders of Plymouth Colony. His writings provide a crucial firsthand account of the Pilgrim experience in New England. Here’s an overview of Bradford and his major work:

Biography: William Bradford (1590-1657) was born in Yorkshire, England. He joined the Separatist movement as a young man and fled to the Netherlands with other dissenters in 1608. In 1620, Bradford was among the Pilgrims who sailed on the Mayflower to establish Plymouth Colony. He served as governor of the colony for over 30 years.

Major Work:

“Of Plymouth Plantation” (written 1630-1651, first published 1856): This is Bradford’s masterpiece and the most important work of his literary career. It’s a comprehensive history of Plymouth Colony from 1620 to 1647. Key aspects of this work include:

1. Historical Account:
   • Detailed narrative of the Pilgrims’ journey from England to the Netherlands and then to America
   • Chronicles of the early years of Plymouth Colony, including interactions with Native Americans
   • Records of the colony’s struggles and successes
2. Personal Reflections:
   • Bradford’s own thoughts and interpretations of events
   • His spiritual insights and observations on divine providence
3. Documentary Evidence:
   • Includes transcriptions of letters, agreements, and other primary sources
   • Provides valuable information on the social, economic, and political aspects of colonial life
4. Writing Style:
   • Written in a plain, direct style characteristic of Puritan literature
   • Uses Biblical allusions and references to illustrate points
   • Combines factual reporting with moral and spiritual commentary
5. Themes:
   • Divine Providence: Bradford interprets events as manifestations of God’s will
   • Perseverance: Emphasizes the Pilgrims’ endurance in the face of hardship
   • Community: Focuses on the importance of unity and mutual support
   • Covenant: Explores the Pilgrims’ sense of special purpose and relationship with God
6. Historical Significance:
   • Provides the most comprehensive firsthand account of the Plymouth Colony
   • Offers insights into Puritan theology and worldview
   • Contributes to the foundational narrative of American history
7. Literary Significance:
   • Considered one of the earliest works of American literature
   • Influential in shaping the American narrative of origins
   • Exemplifies key characteristics of Puritan literature

Notable Passages:

• Bradford’s account of the Mayflower Compact
• His description of the first Thanksgiving
• His reflections on the deaths of many colonists during the first winter

While “Of Plymouth Plantation” is Bradford’s major work, he also wrote other texts, including poetry and personal correspondence, which further illuminate Puritan life and thought.

Bradford’s writing is characterized by its straightforward style, attention to detail, and constant awareness of divine influence in human affairs. “Of Plymouth Plantation” remains a crucial text for understanding the early colonial period, Puritan ideology, and the foundations of American society. It exemplifies many of the key themes and characteristics of Puritan literature, including the focus on divine providence, the importance of community, and the use of typology to interpret current events through a Biblical lens.

Anne Bradstreet

Anne Bradstreet was a significant figure in Puritan literature and is often considered America’s first published poet. Her work provides valuable insights into the Puritan woman’s experience and demonstrates how Puritan beliefs could be expressed through poetry. Here’s an overview of Bradstreet and her major works:

Biography: Anne Bradstreet (1612-1672) was born in England and emigrated to Massachusetts in 1630 as part of the Puritan Great Migration. She was well-educated for a woman of her time, thanks to her father’s position as steward to the Earl of Lincoln. Bradstreet married Simon Bradstreet at age 16 and had eight children. Despite the challenges of colonial life and her domestic responsibilities, she found time to write poetry.

Major Works:

1. “The Tenth Muse Lately Sprung Up in America” (1650): This was Bradstreet’s first published collection of poetry, printed in London without her knowledge. It includes:

• “The Four Elements”
• “Of the Four Humours in Man’s Constitution”
• “The Four Ages of Man”
• “The Four Seasons of the Year”
• “The Four Monarchies”
• “A Dialogue between Old England and New”
• “The Quaternions”

These poems demonstrate Bradstreet’s knowledge of history, politics, and science, often using these subjects as a framework for spiritual reflections.

2. “Several Poems Compiled with Great Variety of Wit and Learning” (1678): This expanded edition of her work was published posthumously in America. It includes her earlier poems as well as more personal and devotional pieces such as:

• “Contemplations”
• “The Flesh and the Spirit”
• “The Author to Her Book”
• “Before the Birth of One of Her Children”
• “To My Dear and Loving Husband”
• “In Memory of My Dear Grandchild Elizabeth Bradstreet”

Themes in Bradstreet’s Poetry:

1. Faith and Doubt: Bradstreet’s poetry often explores her struggles with faith, demonstrating both her deep religious convictions and her moments of doubt. “The Flesh and the Spirit” exemplifies this theme.
2. Domestic Life: Many of her poems focus on her roles as wife and mother, offering a rare glimpse into Puritan domestic life. “Before the Birth of One of Her Children” and “To My Dear and Loving Husband” are notable examples.
3. Nature and Divine Providence: Bradstreet often uses nature imagery to reflect on God’s creation and providence. “Contemplations” is a prime example of this theme.
4. Gender and Authorship: Bradstreet was aware of her unique position as a female poet in a male-dominated society. “The Author to Her Book” addresses her feelings about her published work.
5. Loss and Grief: Several of her poems deal with the loss of loved ones and property, reflecting on the Puritan understanding of such trials. “In Memory of My Dear Grandchild Elizabeth Bradstreet” is a poignant example.

Literary Significance:

1. Bradstreet’s work demonstrates that Puritan beliefs could coexist with poetic expression, challenging the stereotype of Puritans as artistically repressed.
2. Her poetry provides valuable insights into the experiences and inner life of a Puritan woman, offering a perspective rarely found in other literature of the time.
3. While adhering to Puritan beliefs, Bradstreet’s work sometimes subtly challenges gender norms and expresses a degree of ambivalence about Puritan doctrine.
4. Her use of both public and private voices in her poetry reflects the Puritan emphasis on both communal and individual spiritual experiences.

Anne Bradstreet’s poetry is characterized by its blend of Puritan theology, personal experience, and literary skill. Her work stands as a testament to the complexity of Puritan thought and the richness of early American literature. Despite the constraints of her time and culture, Bradstreet created a body of work that continues to be studied and admired for its insight, craft, and emotional depth.

Edward Taylor

Edward Taylor was a significant Puritan poet and minister whose works, though unpublished during his lifetime, have become an important part of early American literature. Here’s an overview of Taylor and his major works:

Biography:
Edward Taylor (c. 1642-1729) was born in England and emigrated to Massachusetts in 1668. He studied at Harvard College and later became a minister in Westfield, Massachusetts, where he served for over 50 years. Taylor wrote poetry throughout his life but, adhering to Puritan beliefs about the vanity of publication, never sought to have his work printed.

Major Works:

1. “Preparatory Meditations” (written 1682-1725):
   This is a series of over 200 poems that Taylor wrote in preparation for administering communion. Key features include:

• Intense spiritual introspection
• Use of elaborate metaphysical conceits
• Exploration of the relationship between the individual soul and Christ

1. “God’s Determinations touching his Elect” (date uncertain):
   A long poem that presents a cosmic drama of salvation. It includes:

• Dialogue between Justice and Mercy
• Portrayal of Christ as a warrior defeating Satan
• Allegorical representation of the soul’s journey to salvation

1. “Poetical Works” (various dates):
   This includes a variety of shorter poems on different themes, such as:

• “Huswifery” – a famous poem using the metaphor of spinning and weaving to describe spiritual life
• “Upon a Spider Catching a Fly” – a meditation on predestination and free will
• Various elegies and occasional poems

Themes in Taylor’s Poetry:

1. Divine Love:
   Taylor often explores the love between Christ and the believer, using vivid, sometimes sensual imagery drawn from the Song of Solomon.
2. Unworthiness and Grace:
   Many poems express Taylor’s sense of his own sinfulness and unworthiness, contrasted with God’s abundant grace.
3. Sacramental Theology:
   As many poems were written in preparation for communion, they often reflect on the meaning and mystery of this sacrament.
4. Nature as Divine Metaphor:
   Taylor frequently uses natural objects and phenomena as starting points for spiritual reflections.
5. Puritan Doctrine:
   His work engages with key Puritan concepts like election, predestination, and covenant theology.

Literary Style:

1. Metaphysical Conceits:
   Taylor’s poetry is known for its use of extended, often startling metaphors to explore spiritual truths.
2. Intricate Form:
   Many of his poems use complex rhyme schemes and metrical patterns.
3. Vivid Imagery:
   Taylor employs rich, sometimes baroque imagery drawn from nature, domestic life, and Biblical sources.
4. Colloquial Language:
   Despite the complexity of his ideas, Taylor often uses everyday language and homely images.

Significance:

1. Taylor’s work represents some of the most sophisticated poetry produced in colonial America.
2. His poems offer deep insights into Puritan spirituality and theology.
3. The personal, often emotional nature of his writing challenges stereotypes about Puritan coldness or rigidity.
4. Taylor’s use of metaphysical conceits links him to earlier English poets like John Donne and George Herbert.
5. The rediscovery of Taylor’s poetry in the 20th century significantly changed our understanding of early American literature.

Edward Taylor’s poetry is characterized by its intellectual depth, emotional intensity, and vivid imagery. It represents a unique blend of Puritan theology, personal devotion, and poetic craftsmanship. While unknown in his own time, Taylor is now recognized as one of the most important poets of colonial America, offering a window into the rich inner life of a Puritan minister and the complex theological world of early New England.

Jonathan Edwards

Jonathan Edwards was a pivotal figure in American Puritan literature and theology, known for his powerful sermons, philosophical works, and role in the Great Awakening. Here’s an overview of Edwards and his major works:

Biography: Jonathan Edwards (1703-1758) was born in East Windsor, Connecticut. He was a child prodigy, entering Yale College at 13 and later becoming a minister. Edwards served as a pastor in Northampton, Massachusetts, where he played a significant role in the religious revival known as the Great Awakening. He later worked as a missionary to Native Americans and briefly served as president of the College of New Jersey (now Princeton University).

Major Works:

1. “Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God” (1741): This is Edwards’ most famous sermon, delivered during the Great Awakening. It’s known for its vivid imagery of divine wrath and urgent call to repentance.
2. “A Treatise Concerning Religious Affections” (1746): A philosophical and theological work examining the nature of true religious experience and how to distinguish genuine faith from mere emotion.
3. “Freedom of the Will” (1754): A complex philosophical work addressing free will, determinism, and moral responsibility within a Calvinist framework.
4. “The Nature of True Virtue” (1765, published posthumously): An ethical treatise exploring the essence of virtue and its relationship to God’s nature.
5. “Personal Narrative” (written c. 1740, published 1830): An autobiographical account of Edwards’ spiritual development and experiences.
6. “Images of Divine Things” (written c. 1730s, published 1948): A collection of observations on how nature reflects spiritual truths, showcasing Edwards’ typological thinking.

Themes in Edwards’ Writing:

1. Divine Sovereignty: Edwards consistently emphasizes God’s absolute control over all aspects of creation and salvation.
2. Human Depravity: He stresses the total sinfulness of humanity and the need for divine grace for salvation.
3. Religious Experience: Edwards explores the nature of genuine religious affections and the workings of the Holy Spirit in conversion.
4. Beauty and Virtue: He develops a unique aesthetic theory linking beauty, virtue, and the nature of God.
5. Typology: Edwards sees the natural world as full of “types” or symbols of spiritual realities.

Literary and Philosophical Style:

1. Logical Argumentation: Edwards’ works often feature carefully structured arguments, reflecting his philosophical training.
2. Vivid Imagery: Particularly in his sermons, Edwards uses powerful, often frightening imagery to convey spiritual truths.
3. Psychological Insight: His writings demonstrate a keen understanding of human psychology, especially in religious contexts.
4. Philosophical Depth: Edwards engages with complex philosophical ideas, integrating them with Puritan theology.
5. Scientific Observation: His works often incorporate careful observations of nature and human behavior.

Significance:

1. Edwards is often considered America’s most important and original philosophical theologian.
2. His role in the Great Awakening helped shape the course of American religious history.
3. Edwards’ work bridges the gap between Puritan theology and Enlightenment thought.
4. His writings on religious experience influenced later American philosophers and psychologists.
5. Edwards’ sermons are considered classics of American literature, showcasing the power of the Puritan plain style.

Jonathan Edwards’ work represents the culmination of the Puritan intellectual tradition in America. His writings combine deep theological reflection, philosophical rigor, and powerful rhetoric. While best known for his fiery sermons, Edwards was also a subtle thinker who engaged with the scientific and philosophical developments of his time. His influence extends beyond theology into American literature, philosophy, and cultural history.

Mary Rowlandson

Mary Rowlandson was a notable figure in early American Puritan literature, best known for her captivity narrative. Her work provides a unique perspective on Puritan life, Native American relations, and the role of women in colonial America. Here’s an overview of Rowlandson and her major work:

Biography:
Mary Rowlandson (c. 1637-1711) was born in England and emigrated to Massachusetts as a child. She married Joseph Rowlandson, a Puritan minister, and lived in Lancaster, Massachusetts. In 1675, during King Philip’s War, she was captured by Native Americans and held for 11 weeks before being ransomed.

Major Work:

“A Narrative of the Captivity and Restoration of Mrs. Mary Rowlandson” (1682):
This is Rowlandson’s account of her capture, captivity, and eventual release. It was one of the first and most popular captivity narratives in American literature. Key aspects include:

1. Structure:
   The narrative is divided into 20 “removes,” each describing a stage of Rowlandson’s journey with her captors.
2. Biblical Framework:
   Rowlandson interprets her experiences through the lens of Scripture, seeing her ordeal as a test of faith and a demonstration of God’s providence.
3. Cultural Observations:
   The narrative provides valuable, though biased, insights into Native American life and culture.
4. Personal Transformation:
   Rowlandson describes how her captivity challenged and ultimately strengthened her faith.
5. Gender Roles:
   The work offers a rare glimpse into the experiences of a Puritan woman in a crisis situation.

Themes in Rowlandson’s Narrative:

1. Divine Providence:
   Rowlandson consistently interprets events as manifestations of God’s will, seeing both hardships and deliverances as divinely ordained.
2. Faith and Endurance:
   The narrative emphasizes the role of faith in helping Rowlandson survive her ordeal.
3. Cultural Conflict:
   Rowlandson’s account reflects the tensions between Puritan settlers and Native Americans, often portraying the latter as savage and heathen.
4. Adaptation and Survival:
   The narrative shows Rowlandson’s gradual adaptation to captivity, including learning to eat unfamiliar foods and navigate a new social environment.
5. Gender and Authority:
   Despite the constraints on women in Puritan society, Rowlandson’s narrative asserts her voice and experiences.

Literary Significance:

1. Genre-Defining Work:
   Rowlandson’s narrative helped establish the captivity narrative as a distinct genre in American literature.
2. Bestseller Status:
   The work was immensely popular, going through multiple editions and influencing later writers.
3. Historical Document:
   While biased, the narrative provides valuable historical information about King Philip’s War and intercultural relations in colonial New England.
4. Female Authorship:
   As one of the first published works by an American woman, it paved the way for future female authors.
5. Puritan Worldview:
   The narrative exemplifies key aspects of Puritan thought, including the belief in divine providence and the use of typological interpretation.

Style and Structure:

1. Plain Style:
   Rowlandson writes in the direct, unadorned prose characteristic of Puritan literature.
2. Biblical Allusions:
   The text is peppered with Biblical quotations and references, reflecting Rowlandson’s deep familiarity with Scripture.
3. Episodic Structure:
   The “removes” provide a clear organizational framework for the narrative.
4. First-Person Perspective:
   Rowlandson’s personal voice gives the narrative immediacy and emotional power.

Mary Rowlandson’s captivity narrative is a crucial text in early American literature, offering insights into Puritan spirituality, colonial-Native American relations, and women’s experiences in early America. Its blend of personal testimony, spiritual reflection, and cultural observation made it both popular in its time and enduringly significant in American literary history. The work continues to be studied for its historical value, its representation of Puritan worldviews, and its role in shaping American literary traditions.

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